Paraphrase Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Paraphrase - Essay Example Over the past two decades, there has been a rapid increase in outbreaks of foodborne illnesses and other cases that are due to fresh produce. Estimates show that produce accounts for about 20 million illnesses in the US, which is about 24% (Farber, Crichton, and Snyder, 2014). That leads to an estimated cost of $38.6 Billion every year. In the 1970s, produce rarely earned recognition as a major vessel of outbreaks and cases of illnesses in the US. It only accounted for 0.7% of the outbreaks and 1% of cases of the illnesses. However, due to increased evidence, the numbers increased in the 1990s and produce now accounted for about 6% and 12%. Between 1990 and 2003, there was a further increase and the estimates in the US were now 16% of outbreaks and 30% of total cases. Some estimates also indicate that between the year 1990 and 2005 produce accounted for about 13% of all outbreaks of illnesses and 21% of the cases in the US. Using a more recent interval from 1998 to 2007, the estimate s show that produce accounts for about 14.8% of the outbreaks and 22.8% of all cases of foodborne illnesses that occurred in the US. Produce, which includes fruits, vegetables and salads contributed to about 111, 228 and 345 illness outbreaks respectively (Farber, Crichton, and Snyder, 2014). Of the illnesses reported, vegetables and salads contributed the largest number of illnesses. That was about 11,200 illnesses caused by each of the two categories. According to an analysis of data concerning outbreaks in the US for the period between 1988 and 2008, on average, the illness outbreaks caused by produce amount to between 6.3 and 13.2 per year. In recent times, leafy greens contribute to a third of the outbreaks. Reports indicate that in Canada, produce accounted for 15 outbreaks for the period between 1991 and 2000. The cases due to foodborne illness in that period were about 1360 (Farber, Crichton, and Snyder, 2014). There are several microorganisms, which

PERSONAL STATEMENT Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Personal Statement Example mmunications and social marketing and specifically e-marketing; this has me achieve distinctions at the school of Business for Top Athletes in Austria. Further, a degree in +Apprentice for the profession of Retailer as well as a High school Diploma in Business Administration with distinctions. The culmination of my academic qualifications will be later this year at St. Poelten University of Applied Science on acquisition of my Degree in Media Management. With my experience at Bene AG as an intern this year in corporate communications and e-Marketing; my passion for marketing programs and campaigns was realized. Crucial skills in the world of technology were archived that incorporated web page optimization, e-newsletters preparation, e-marketing and e-mails. These gave me great impetus with respect to the contemporary world media skills. This was an extension of what I had achieved in my other placements at NXP for Event Management and Communications in 2009, as well as Camp Echo New York PR. The placement at Camp Echo was also a fascinating one that gave me overwhelming exposure with respect to publicizing and event managements for sports. This was realized alongside organization of trip, Presentation and Moderation of events. To top up on the above, with photography skills incorporating artistic, portrait, commercial and reportage; music and its production, as well as writing scripts, I worked for Hobby Photograph for NOEN particularly covering my hobby sports events. I am also a member of the â€Å"Event, Film and Radio’ team at the university as well as the Campus Magazine- SUMO. These activities have prepared me for the media activities and heightened my passion for further studies. This will make me realise the dream of my interests in social affairs, media and sports, America, forego languages encounter as well as travelling to experience different cultures. Media is a great part of my academic and career achievement and I truly feel that my Masters will

Benefits of Internet Opportunities for SMEs in Mauritius

Benefits of Internet Opportunities for SMEs in Mauritius Acknowledgement Many individuals have played an important role in our upbringing and education To our parents, who deserve special recognition. We would also like to extend a special acknowledgement to our lecturer, Mr. D Seethiah for giving us the opportunity to reflect and work on such a project. Thanks to our group who have been working very hard for accomplishment of this assignment. Finally, we extend our appreciation to the Almighty for granting us good health and prosperity. Executive summary SMEs are called upon to play a competitive role in the economy of Mauritius. Adoption of ICT by SMEs can a have positive impact on the national economy. The reasons are: (a) Internet based infrastructures are relatively cheap; (b) they provide an ever converging and rich environment for effective business networking; and (c) they provide SMEs access to a larger market. This assignment examines the extent internet provides opportunities for business expansion of SMEs in Mauritius. It also identifies the enablers and barriers to the use of internet by SMEs. A questionnaire was used to collect data among some SMEs. They were classified as follows: IT Novice, IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist. The findings are reported, based on the analysis of the data collected. Several key findings emerge from the research in this assignment: IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist use computers, they have internet connection that they exclusively use for email and they have a website too. The degree of diffusion of the internet is high among IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist. For SMEs to take advantage of the opportunities provided by the internet for business expansion, they will have to acquire knowledge and skills in using the internet and be made aware of the facilities being offered by the NCB and the existing laws in the field of e-commerce. They will also have to bank on the vulgarization of the use of internet amongst customers or at least, for the time being, design/customize products that could help target a certain market segment. Introduction Internet has revolutionized and continues to deeply impact on the way one does business. It is now a major tool for conducting business. It allows buyers and sellers to meet online, communicate and exchange information on goods and services. Besides, it does away with the geographical boundaries, the time zones and, in some cases, the need for physical space to transact business. With its tremendous potential, it has become commonplace for businesses and consumers to transact business via the Internet through email or online purchasing. For the SMEs, it offers a vista of opportunities for business expansion. However, many SMEs do not take advantage of the Internet thinking that their goods and services do not lend themselves to Internet transactions. Moreover, they do not possess the managerial knowledge and skills for e-business. Hiring an IT-expert or an e-business consultant to fill this gap requires relatively huge sum of money, which they cannot afford. Sometimes, the availability of broadband connections may affect the decisions of SMEs to adopt e-commerce. Further, sound government policies should be in place to create the necessary environment and incentives to encourage SMEs to take advantage of the Internet to create business opportunities. Many unscrupulous persons are interested in the huge potential of the Internet for their own selfish motives. In countries where there are no appropriate legal instruments, there may be a host of possible attacks that compromise the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information that they exchange through the Internet. Consequently, people may lose trust on the security of doing business in the Internet and thus forego it huge potential for business. Literature Review SMEs in MAURITIUS According to the minister of Finance and Economic Development, Dr. R. K. Sithanen: A key component in the governments agenda for economic development and democratization is the development of the small and medium enterprise sector into a competitive force (April 2006). Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are widely acknowledged as an important sector for national and international economic development. Growth oriented small business make a major contribution to economic development and employment generation within local communities and national economies. (Smallbone and Wyer, 2000) SMEs contribute substantially to national economies (Poon and Swatman, 1999) and are estimated to account for 80 per cent of global economic growth (Jutla et al, 2002). It is no secret that globalization (r)evolution and communication technologies (ICT) are going to change the structure of the any economy. (Kaushalesh Lal and Aveeraj Sharma Peedoly, 2006). With the government of Mauritius promoting small and medium enterprises as a competitive sector of the economy, organizational and technological changes in these firms are expected to have significant impact on the national economy. Proponents of globalization argue that it will open a window of opportunities for SMEs while networking capabilities of ICTs suggest that SMEs can augment their competitiveness in global markets. In fact several studies (Lal, 2004 and Drew, 2003) found positive impact of the adoption of ICTs by SMEs. Although there is very little data pertaining to the evolution of SMEs across time, the origins of SMEs in Mauritius can be traced back to the 1960s when Mauritius was witnessing the beginning of a timid industrialization process with an import-substitution strategy with the main objective of supplying the local market and giving certain autonomy to the country. The inward-looking industrial policy of the Government of the day was of encouraging the production of such commodities as the manufacturing of blades, electrical bulbs, batteries, soap, welding and steel work for construction, refining edible oils, plastic industry, food canning, industrial poultry breeding, yogurt manufacturing, biscuits, shoes, matches etc for the domestic market; this was also the prevailing orthodoxy of the time especially for African developing economies. Many critics (see e.g Maujean, 1996) argue that this programme was superficially planned with no support schemes nor incentives proposed to the enterp rises. Although, the import substitution strategy was soon overshadowed by an export-oriented strategy with the setting up of Export-Processing Zones, many small-scale enterprises exploited the products mentioned above for the domestic market. In fact, most SMEs today cater for the local market in similar areas as mentioned above. According to Maujean (1996) the early enterprises were attempts to reproduce locally models which existed abroad. In food processing, firms like Purlait Ltd, La Boulangerie Industrielle and Lyons Maid which pioneered private, small-scale enterprises in the country started off with enormous difficulties in spite of being relatively modern with an important capital investment and sophisticated distribution network. The concern with survival in a largely traditional and poorly developed society meant that the local market was not yet ready for such products. Nevertheless against this background a protectionist strategy which involved high tariff against competitive goods helped these industries to operate. As Wignaraja and Oneil (1999) argue, for the size of the country and its stage of development, Mauritius has a particularly wide range of support services for the SME sector. Beyene (2002) makes a largely similar argument especially when looking at it by African standards. This wide array of support is provided mainly through Government and parastatal agencies or financial institutions. The Small Enterprises and handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA), Enterprise Mauritius (EM), the Development Bank of Mauritius Ltd (DBM), the Small Medium Enterprises Partnership Fund (SMEPF), the National Computer Board (NCB) are generally regarded as the main institutions which provide support to SMEs by operating schemes to enhance the setting up or development of enterprises. They act mainly as facilitators, providing financial support, training and consultancy services, marketing and export assistance. The Small Enterprises and Handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA) The Small Enterprises Handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA) was created following the merger of the Small Medium industries Development Organisation (SMIDO) and the National Handicraft Promotion Agency (NHPA). The aim of the merger is to rationalize and optimize the use of resources dedicated to the small business sector in Mauritius. SEHDA, falling under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, SMEs, Commerce Co-operatives, provides support to potential and existing small entrepreneurs with a view to enable them to start new enterprises or to improve their existing businesses. Enterprise Mauritius (EM) Enterprise Mauritius operates under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, SMEs, Commerce Co-operatives and we have one primary objective, driving growth in exports both regionally and internationally through export sectors at 3 levels: Assisting in the development of Industry Sector strategies and Action plans The facilitation of Strategic Clusters to meet commonly shared group objectives And ultimately, working with individual businesses to help them develop an integrated market and capability development plan to provide access to resources that meet their specific requirements Development Bank of Mauritius An important part of the Banks resources is geared towards the development, consolidation and modernization of the SME sector. A separate department at the DBM is in fact dedicated to promote entrepreneurship development. Loans are provided at competitive rates for start-ups, financing of production equipment, technology improvement and also for working capital with the maximum quantum allocated varying according to industrial sectors. With respect to exports, the DBM runs the Export Development Fund for participation in overseas trade fairs and market surveys and also provides loans for joint ventures with overseas partners. Together with the DBM, other commercial banks such as the Mauritius Post and Cooperative Bank (MPCB), the MCB and the STB offer credit facilities albeit at less competitive rates and relatively more important collaterals to small entrepreneurs. Recently most of the main banks in the country (MCCB, MCB, Barclays and the State Bank) have also announced preferentia l interest rates for SMEs. Small and Medium Enterprises Partnership Fund (SMEPF) A parastatal body set up to provide funding ranging from Rs. 300,000 to Rs. 3 million amounting up to 50% of the total capitalization of the business. The criterion used is the evaluation of the business plan of the proposed venture to assess its feasibility to allow the return of the allocated funds within a period of five years. SMEPF is gradually gaining more importance as a source of funding to SMEs. National Computer Board (NCB) The NCB was set up as the apex organisation to develop and promote ICT and ICT-related services in Mauritius. Its main contribution towards SME development has been in terms of its incubator centre mainly for ICT start-ups with the main objectives of promoting entrepreneurship in the ICT sector by providing the necessary infrastructure and logistics, the development of linkages with other institutions and marketing. Moreover it runs sensitization programmes regularly for SMEs in order to familiarize and influence them to the strategic and financial benefits of integrating ICTs in the running of their enterprises. Information and Communication Technology Authority (ICTA) The ICTA is a regulatory body set up in 2001 replacing the former Mauritius Telecommunications Authority. The main objectives of ICTA are listed below: To democratize access to information, taking into account quality, diversity and plurality To license and regulate the information and communication services To encourage optimum use of ICT in business, industry and government at large, the introduction of new technology and the investment in infrastructure and services Other SME Supporting Institutions Together with the above institutions there are others, which mainly private sector bodies such as the Mauritius Employers Federation (MEF), and Mauritius Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI) do provide miscellaneous facilities for SMEs more specifically in terms of documentation, training, advice and consultancy. Despite the variety of measures described above, it is acknowledged that the full potential of the SME sector has yet to be unleashed, the more so in the contemporary context of globalization which calls for greater competitiveness and efficiency in both local and overseas markets. A review of the existing literature on the difficulties faced by the SME sector pinpoints the shortcomings of the existing support system. As Wignaraja and ONeil (1999, p 64) argue: Undoubtedly the investment in SME support is not delivering the growth required or expected at the enterprise level and this must be improved. An overhaul of the entire support system is required to address the deficiencies () and to create a more cohesive integrated framework. It has been noted that owing to the fact that SMEs are quite flexible, they sometimes lack the vision and discipline to maintain a coherent strategy to wards the market. IFC (2004) proposed that an aggressive push to be given to the sector of training and education. One of the most important barriers to the adoption of e-business in Mauritius remains the lack of trust into the system. Indeed, (Kuwayama, 2001) found that companies believed that transactions on the internet were very unsafe. This situation seems to be recurrent in other developing countries as suggested by (Payne, 2002) Aspects of Internet and Issues The use of internet in business is one of the tools that e-commerce offers. We start therefore by overseeing some general facts about e-commerce as pertains to SMEs. General e-commerce facts related to SMEs The use of the Internet and communication technologies has been found to improve business competitiveness, with the Internet providing the opportunity for SMEs to compete on equal terms with larger organizations (Chapman et al., 2000). The development of e-commerce in the last ten years all over the world has involved a growing number of businesses. E-commerce has been used as an important lever to promote business growth (Bianchi and Bivona, 2002). It is important for a firm grow continuously if the firm wants to maintain competitive advantage. Thus firms should struggle for continuous growth keeping the aim of increasing or simply maintaining their sales and profits levels, to ensure their survival (Claver et al., 2006). Throughout management literature, many successful stories are spread and researchers are encouraging SMEs to start e-commerce ventures in order to increase their sales (Bianchi and Bivona, 2002). At the same time there is considerable effort expended, both in time and money, by governments to encourage small and medium sized enterprises to invest in the use of the Internet (Beckinsale and Levy, 2004). According to Levy and Powell (2002) most SMEs do not view the Internet as the key to their business strategy. Strategy is rarely raised as an enabler or as an inhibitor in the literature. The entrepreneur is critical in determining the Internet development. However, strategic commitment has been shown to be critical in SMEs. Research in several countries show that SMEs have been slower to adopt e-commerce than their larger counterparts, but the rate of the Internet usage in SMEs is growing quite rapidly. Internet has focused on large firms, new business models, the growth and development of dot-coms and the new economy. SMEs in traditional industries have been slower to adopt e-commerce than their larger competitors and research into the use of the Internet by such firms is more recent. (Drew, 2003) Furthermore, compared to the extensive literature on the importance and potential of the Internet as component of the business environment, research on organizational evolution and strategy for the Internet in businesses is limited and sketchy. The majority of publications, text books, press articles, and white papers on the Internet strategy deal with this issue on a somewhat tactical level: How to build up unique competitive position, attract customers, and increase sales. (Constantinides, 2004) In many ways the field of entrepreneurship and small medium sized firm research seems no closer to understanding the dynamics of small business growth after decades of empirical studies (Lowe and Henson, 2004). Whilst the issue of growth in small firms is topical and well researched, the literature on growth processes and transitions in high-growth small firms is sparse and underrepresented in the entrepreneurship and small business journals. A recent content review of abstracts obtained via a database search identified only two percent addressing issues of high growth, growth processes and transitions as being key elements of the published papers. Saulnier and Rosson (2004) further mention that expressions made about the importance of e-business have not been fully matched by actions taken, particularly in the areas of staff training, technology infrastructure, and applications to deal with growth. The use of ICT, technology upgrading, and continuous innovation are paramount to being competitive and run at optimum efficiency. However there is relatively little empirical data pertaining to SMEs in Mauritius and more particularly regarding the extent to which they have adopted ICTs in day to day running of their businesses. A survey by Matadeen (2004) showed that most of the Mauritian companies were managed by the owners themselves irrespective of the fact that they may have management skills or not. With this in mind, the strategy to develop for SMEs and e-business must take into account the local culture and customs in Mauritius. Possible Role of the Internet in Specific Growth Strategies Adopted by SMEs The Internet is usually presented as an opportunity for smaller firms because it helps reduce transaction costs and level the playing field. Often cited benefits include expanding the scope of marketing, wider and richer communication, reaching new markets, reducing the cost of operations and partnering with suppliers and other collaborators. (Drew, 2003) The Internet provides a unique opportunity to examine the evolution and growth of a business sector because it has taken place over a relatively short time period (Javalgi et al. 2004). The initial Internet environment might be described as a virgin environment, in which rapid growth could be expected. Among emerging technologies, the Internet is a new channel for commerce applicable in a wide variety of industries around the world. As a new strategic tool, it is transforming businesses and creating new opportunities as well as challenges for international marketers as many nations are fast connecting to the global marketplace. Information technology is continuing to be an integral part of the business plan. Electronic commerce is affecting the way business are planning growth strategies and is the leading driver of corporate growth. The key is for IT to be seen as the new engine for growth, and not as a frustrating cost center. This result in a new way of thinking: The focus should be not on how much new technology should cost, but on how much revenue it will bring in. (Fruhling and Digman, 2000) Many SMEs have made innovative uses of the Internet to invent new business models or to enhance existing practices (Drew, 2003). Firms with a history of innovation are embarking on a full- scale electronic commerce strategy. These firms are tying innovation with electronic commerce with the hopes to ensure company growth. Fruhling and Digman (2000) mention electronic commerce enables business to quickly and efficiently implement growth strategies. One of the main reasons this strategy is so attractive is the incredible growth rate of the Internet users. Key Drivers for adoption of the Internet in SME Growth Levy and Powell (2002) explored the adoption of the Internet among SMEs and formulated a model for the Internet adoption. This model identifies four roles for the Internet in SMEs brochure ware, support, opportunity, and network. These are driven by business growth planning and perceived the Internet value as shown in figure: Business Growth Levy and Powell (2002) advocate two key drivers in determining the use of internet by SMEs. The first driver is business growth. In some firms business growth is planned and investments are made ahead of need. In many other SMEs growth may occur but not as a result of planning. Attitude to business growth often determine whether SME owners consider resource investment in the business. IT investment is traditionally restricted in SMEs, with many investing at start-up, but no further investment is made until business outgrows existing system. It is reasonable that attitude to growth will impact SMEs decision to invest in the Internet. Business Value from Use of the Internet The second driver is business value from use of the Internet. Business value of the Internet is identified through response to the firms competitive positioning and their knowledge of respective industries. SMEs do consider the role of the Internet for their business generally with cautious approach. Most firms do not see the value of the Internet to their growth strategy. However, a number of visionary owners believe they can change their business through the use of the Internet. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Brochureware are those firms that do not plan business growth and see the value of the Internet as low. Owners generally think about the Internet but cannot see its relevance to their business. One of the reasons is nature of industry in which SME operates. Hence, there is a role for the Internet for these firms but it is restricted to the presentation of on-line firm information or brochures and for e-mails. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Business Opportunity is SMEs with recognition that the Internet has some value to them, in the future. However, it is limited to improving efficiency internally, customer communication, and research. The contrast between this category and Brochureware is that owners recognize the business value of the Internet and although not seeking growth, recognize that competitive pressure demand investment. These firms see a business opportunity from use of the Internet and related. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Firms using the Internet for Business Support are planning growth, but currently see little future for their businesses from the Internet. Most of time these SMEs are innovative firms seeking growth. They have a number of innovative products that are sold to large firms, so personal contact is regarded by customers as important and there is little indication that the Internet is of value. These SMEs seek to grow but do not believe that industry demands investment in the Internet to support that growth. These firms see the worth of the Internet as a medium for business support. (Levy and Powell, 2002) In Business Network opportunity from the Internet is seen as key to the development of SMEs. Firms see their future tied into using the Internet. Firms develop IT strategy alongside their business strategy most of the time. These are well positioned to take advantage of e-Business. These firms possesses effective internal network accessible by all employees as means to manage the business processes. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Advantages of the Internet for SME Growth According to Davis et al. (2000) a firm-specific advantage in penetrating international markets and facilitating organizational growth may stem from investments in technology or the use of specific technologies, such as the Internet. There is a long history of research linking technology and internationalization. Researchers advocate that to enter foreign markets, a firm must possess some clear advantage that will allow it to overcome native firms more thorough understanding of the local market. Traditionally, multinational corporations use economies of scale and other advantages of large size. However, many entrepreneurial firms can overcome the disadvantage of small size through their use of technology, such as the Internet, to reach consumers beyond their borders. Certain technologies can provide an advantage that widens market opportunities and serves as a platform for expansion. The Internet is widely considered to be one such technology rapid internationalization. (Davis et al. 2000) Authors argue that internationalization and growth of firms are positively affected by increased use of the Internet and increased investments in information technology. In addition, more attention is to be paid to the application of the Internet as well as to the pattern of investments in information technology to explain international expansion and growth among entrepreneur- led businesses. The continued globalization of the world economy makes the realization of role of technology in expanding overseas and maintaining healthy growth. Davis et al. (2000) mention that firms with more aggressive use of technology are likely to engage more in international activities. Their study of internationalization among new, high-tech firms reveals that firms with higher levels of technology usage incur costs associated with internationalizing to be significantly lower than firms with lower levels of technology usage. It appears that companies with a technological advantage have an incentive to expand overseas because they can use that advantage in overseas markets at little or no marginal cost over the cost of developing the advantage in the domestic market. Role of the Internet in Product-Market Development Strategy Market Development Online channels are used to sell into new markets, taking advantage of the low cost of advertising internationally without the necessity for a supporting sales infrastructure in the customers regions (Chaffey et al. 2003). This is a relatively conservative use of the Internet, but is great opportunity for SMEs to increase exports at low cost. A less evident benefit of the Internet is that as well as selling into new geographic markets, products can also be sold to new market segments or different types of customers. This may happen simply as a byproduct of having a web site. The Internet may offer further opportunities for selling to market sub-segments that have not been previously targeted. For example, a product sold to large businesses may also appeal to small firms. Product Development The Internet can be the basis for product development, information sharing, resource sharing, knowledge sharing and task assigning between different businesses. This can improve product quality and decrease development time and cost. (Yujun et al., 2006) Product development is innovative use of the Internet (Chaffey et al., 2003). Howe et al., (2000) report that the Internet provides global access to people, data, software, documents and multimedia have allowed organizations to shorten the development cycle of new products, to communicate with experts from around the world, to receive immediate customer feedback, and to access supercomputers for industrial research and development. According to Howe et al., (2000) the Internet and its related applications can be effectively implemented at various stages of product development. For example, online forums, newsgroups, and Web sites provide an external source for product ideas. Market research can be performed on the Internet as numerous Web sites provide demographic information useful for estimating market size and potential. Surveys can be conducted on the Internet during the business case preparation to determine consumers needs, wants and preferences. Web-based and intranet applications can play an important role in the development phase, particularly when projects involve numerous teams at various locations. Providing effective media for communicating and disseminating information, these technologies also facilitate concurrent engineering. The Internet can be used for beta testing of new products, allowing lead users and firms to collaboratively eliminate product defects prior to market introduction. The Internet and its related technologies can add significant value to new-product development projects. The main value lies in the acceleration of profitable ideas through the new product development process. At the same time, risks associated with this `rush to market are minimized as a formal system to weed out poor ideas quickly and to suggest modifications to product concepts. The use of the Internet and/or intranet at various stages not only minimizes time to launch but can also increase the integration of constituent viewpoints/recommendations, example consumers, engineers, marketing, etc., during development. This integration of the `voice of the customer and other functional members of the firm are critical in successful new product introductions. Need for speed is becoming more salient in todays competitive arena. The firm that is first to launch a new product/technology, i.e. the pioneer, can accrue several pioneering advantages. These advantages include, but are not limit ed to: establishing product standards, building brand equity (combination of awareness, perceived quality, brand loyalty, etc.), securing distribution channels, and setting initial customer expectation for all other products. (Howe et al., 2000) The Internet offers opportunities for firms in their new product development pursuits in terms of enhancing their abilities to collect, categorize and use information needed for product development; helping them understand their market better and thus target it more effectively; generating a wider range of new product ideas from a wider range of sources; making the concept screening process more comprehensive, flexible and objective; increasing the speed and the quality of business analyses; facilitating the collaboration of new product team members and enhancing operational performance; increasing the speed and the quality of testing and validation; improving the effectiveness and the efficiency of manufacturing development; enhancing the effectiveness and the efficiency of new product launch. (Howe et al., 2000) LEGAL ASPECTS Laws Covering Cross-Border Electronic Transactions between a Buyer and a Seller Business to Business (B2B) transactions differs from Business to Consumer (B2C) transactions on the way an agreement is entered. In the case of a B2C transaction, the parties involved have to abide by the public policy laws of the consumers country, which are meant to protect the consumer. On the other hand, parties have the freedom to choose which law will govern their contract. They have to state which law will govern their transaction(s). In case they have not specified, the jurisdiction responsible for the case will have to decide which law is applicable. In general, two solutions are most commonly applied: The applicable law will be the law of the country of the seller or The applicable law is that of the place of the signing of the contract. Point of Sale for Which the Buyer and the Seller Become Legally Bound Benefits of Internet Opportunities for SMEs in Mauritius Benefits of Internet Opportunities for SMEs in Mauritius Acknowledgement Many individuals have played an important role in our upbringing and education To our parents, who deserve special recognition. We would also like to extend a special acknowledgement to our lecturer, Mr. D Seethiah for giving us the opportunity to reflect and work on such a project. Thanks to our group who have been working very hard for accomplishment of this assignment. Finally, we extend our appreciation to the Almighty for granting us good health and prosperity. Executive summary SMEs are called upon to play a competitive role in the economy of Mauritius. Adoption of ICT by SMEs can a have positive impact on the national economy. The reasons are: (a) Internet based infrastructures are relatively cheap; (b) they provide an ever converging and rich environment for effective business networking; and (c) they provide SMEs access to a larger market. This assignment examines the extent internet provides opportunities for business expansion of SMEs in Mauritius. It also identifies the enablers and barriers to the use of internet by SMEs. A questionnaire was used to collect data among some SMEs. They were classified as follows: IT Novice, IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist. The findings are reported, based on the analysis of the data collected. Several key findings emerge from the research in this assignment: IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist use computers, they have internet connection that they exclusively use for email and they have a website too. The degree of diffusion of the internet is high among IT Savvy and e-Commerce Specialist. For SMEs to take advantage of the opportunities provided by the internet for business expansion, they will have to acquire knowledge and skills in using the internet and be made aware of the facilities being offered by the NCB and the existing laws in the field of e-commerce. They will also have to bank on the vulgarization of the use of internet amongst customers or at least, for the time being, design/customize products that could help target a certain market segment. Introduction Internet has revolutionized and continues to deeply impact on the way one does business. It is now a major tool for conducting business. It allows buyers and sellers to meet online, communicate and exchange information on goods and services. Besides, it does away with the geographical boundaries, the time zones and, in some cases, the need for physical space to transact business. With its tremendous potential, it has become commonplace for businesses and consumers to transact business via the Internet through email or online purchasing. For the SMEs, it offers a vista of opportunities for business expansion. However, many SMEs do not take advantage of the Internet thinking that their goods and services do not lend themselves to Internet transactions. Moreover, they do not possess the managerial knowledge and skills for e-business. Hiring an IT-expert or an e-business consultant to fill this gap requires relatively huge sum of money, which they cannot afford. Sometimes, the availability of broadband connections may affect the decisions of SMEs to adopt e-commerce. Further, sound government policies should be in place to create the necessary environment and incentives to encourage SMEs to take advantage of the Internet to create business opportunities. Many unscrupulous persons are interested in the huge potential of the Internet for their own selfish motives. In countries where there are no appropriate legal instruments, there may be a host of possible attacks that compromise the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information that they exchange through the Internet. Consequently, people may lose trust on the security of doing business in the Internet and thus forego it huge potential for business. Literature Review SMEs in MAURITIUS According to the minister of Finance and Economic Development, Dr. R. K. Sithanen: A key component in the governments agenda for economic development and democratization is the development of the small and medium enterprise sector into a competitive force (April 2006). Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are widely acknowledged as an important sector for national and international economic development. Growth oriented small business make a major contribution to economic development and employment generation within local communities and national economies. (Smallbone and Wyer, 2000) SMEs contribute substantially to national economies (Poon and Swatman, 1999) and are estimated to account for 80 per cent of global economic growth (Jutla et al, 2002). It is no secret that globalization (r)evolution and communication technologies (ICT) are going to change the structure of the any economy. (Kaushalesh Lal and Aveeraj Sharma Peedoly, 2006). With the government of Mauritius promoting small and medium enterprises as a competitive sector of the economy, organizational and technological changes in these firms are expected to have significant impact on the national economy. Proponents of globalization argue that it will open a window of opportunities for SMEs while networking capabilities of ICTs suggest that SMEs can augment their competitiveness in global markets. In fact several studies (Lal, 2004 and Drew, 2003) found positive impact of the adoption of ICTs by SMEs. Although there is very little data pertaining to the evolution of SMEs across time, the origins of SMEs in Mauritius can be traced back to the 1960s when Mauritius was witnessing the beginning of a timid industrialization process with an import-substitution strategy with the main objective of supplying the local market and giving certain autonomy to the country. The inward-looking industrial policy of the Government of the day was of encouraging the production of such commodities as the manufacturing of blades, electrical bulbs, batteries, soap, welding and steel work for construction, refining edible oils, plastic industry, food canning, industrial poultry breeding, yogurt manufacturing, biscuits, shoes, matches etc for the domestic market; this was also the prevailing orthodoxy of the time especially for African developing economies. Many critics (see e.g Maujean, 1996) argue that this programme was superficially planned with no support schemes nor incentives proposed to the enterp rises. Although, the import substitution strategy was soon overshadowed by an export-oriented strategy with the setting up of Export-Processing Zones, many small-scale enterprises exploited the products mentioned above for the domestic market. In fact, most SMEs today cater for the local market in similar areas as mentioned above. According to Maujean (1996) the early enterprises were attempts to reproduce locally models which existed abroad. In food processing, firms like Purlait Ltd, La Boulangerie Industrielle and Lyons Maid which pioneered private, small-scale enterprises in the country started off with enormous difficulties in spite of being relatively modern with an important capital investment and sophisticated distribution network. The concern with survival in a largely traditional and poorly developed society meant that the local market was not yet ready for such products. Nevertheless against this background a protectionist strategy which involved high tariff against competitive goods helped these industries to operate. As Wignaraja and Oneil (1999) argue, for the size of the country and its stage of development, Mauritius has a particularly wide range of support services for the SME sector. Beyene (2002) makes a largely similar argument especially when looking at it by African standards. This wide array of support is provided mainly through Government and parastatal agencies or financial institutions. The Small Enterprises and handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA), Enterprise Mauritius (EM), the Development Bank of Mauritius Ltd (DBM), the Small Medium Enterprises Partnership Fund (SMEPF), the National Computer Board (NCB) are generally regarded as the main institutions which provide support to SMEs by operating schemes to enhance the setting up or development of enterprises. They act mainly as facilitators, providing financial support, training and consultancy services, marketing and export assistance. The Small Enterprises and Handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA) The Small Enterprises Handicraft Development Authority (SEHDA) was created following the merger of the Small Medium industries Development Organisation (SMIDO) and the National Handicraft Promotion Agency (NHPA). The aim of the merger is to rationalize and optimize the use of resources dedicated to the small business sector in Mauritius. SEHDA, falling under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, SMEs, Commerce Co-operatives, provides support to potential and existing small entrepreneurs with a view to enable them to start new enterprises or to improve their existing businesses. Enterprise Mauritius (EM) Enterprise Mauritius operates under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry, SMEs, Commerce Co-operatives and we have one primary objective, driving growth in exports both regionally and internationally through export sectors at 3 levels: Assisting in the development of Industry Sector strategies and Action plans The facilitation of Strategic Clusters to meet commonly shared group objectives And ultimately, working with individual businesses to help them develop an integrated market and capability development plan to provide access to resources that meet their specific requirements Development Bank of Mauritius An important part of the Banks resources is geared towards the development, consolidation and modernization of the SME sector. A separate department at the DBM is in fact dedicated to promote entrepreneurship development. Loans are provided at competitive rates for start-ups, financing of production equipment, technology improvement and also for working capital with the maximum quantum allocated varying according to industrial sectors. With respect to exports, the DBM runs the Export Development Fund for participation in overseas trade fairs and market surveys and also provides loans for joint ventures with overseas partners. Together with the DBM, other commercial banks such as the Mauritius Post and Cooperative Bank (MPCB), the MCB and the STB offer credit facilities albeit at less competitive rates and relatively more important collaterals to small entrepreneurs. Recently most of the main banks in the country (MCCB, MCB, Barclays and the State Bank) have also announced preferentia l interest rates for SMEs. Small and Medium Enterprises Partnership Fund (SMEPF) A parastatal body set up to provide funding ranging from Rs. 300,000 to Rs. 3 million amounting up to 50% of the total capitalization of the business. The criterion used is the evaluation of the business plan of the proposed venture to assess its feasibility to allow the return of the allocated funds within a period of five years. SMEPF is gradually gaining more importance as a source of funding to SMEs. National Computer Board (NCB) The NCB was set up as the apex organisation to develop and promote ICT and ICT-related services in Mauritius. Its main contribution towards SME development has been in terms of its incubator centre mainly for ICT start-ups with the main objectives of promoting entrepreneurship in the ICT sector by providing the necessary infrastructure and logistics, the development of linkages with other institutions and marketing. Moreover it runs sensitization programmes regularly for SMEs in order to familiarize and influence them to the strategic and financial benefits of integrating ICTs in the running of their enterprises. Information and Communication Technology Authority (ICTA) The ICTA is a regulatory body set up in 2001 replacing the former Mauritius Telecommunications Authority. The main objectives of ICTA are listed below: To democratize access to information, taking into account quality, diversity and plurality To license and regulate the information and communication services To encourage optimum use of ICT in business, industry and government at large, the introduction of new technology and the investment in infrastructure and services Other SME Supporting Institutions Together with the above institutions there are others, which mainly private sector bodies such as the Mauritius Employers Federation (MEF), and Mauritius Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI) do provide miscellaneous facilities for SMEs more specifically in terms of documentation, training, advice and consultancy. Despite the variety of measures described above, it is acknowledged that the full potential of the SME sector has yet to be unleashed, the more so in the contemporary context of globalization which calls for greater competitiveness and efficiency in both local and overseas markets. A review of the existing literature on the difficulties faced by the SME sector pinpoints the shortcomings of the existing support system. As Wignaraja and ONeil (1999, p 64) argue: Undoubtedly the investment in SME support is not delivering the growth required or expected at the enterprise level and this must be improved. An overhaul of the entire support system is required to address the deficiencies () and to create a more cohesive integrated framework. It has been noted that owing to the fact that SMEs are quite flexible, they sometimes lack the vision and discipline to maintain a coherent strategy to wards the market. IFC (2004) proposed that an aggressive push to be given to the sector of training and education. One of the most important barriers to the adoption of e-business in Mauritius remains the lack of trust into the system. Indeed, (Kuwayama, 2001) found that companies believed that transactions on the internet were very unsafe. This situation seems to be recurrent in other developing countries as suggested by (Payne, 2002) Aspects of Internet and Issues The use of internet in business is one of the tools that e-commerce offers. We start therefore by overseeing some general facts about e-commerce as pertains to SMEs. General e-commerce facts related to SMEs The use of the Internet and communication technologies has been found to improve business competitiveness, with the Internet providing the opportunity for SMEs to compete on equal terms with larger organizations (Chapman et al., 2000). The development of e-commerce in the last ten years all over the world has involved a growing number of businesses. E-commerce has been used as an important lever to promote business growth (Bianchi and Bivona, 2002). It is important for a firm grow continuously if the firm wants to maintain competitive advantage. Thus firms should struggle for continuous growth keeping the aim of increasing or simply maintaining their sales and profits levels, to ensure their survival (Claver et al., 2006). Throughout management literature, many successful stories are spread and researchers are encouraging SMEs to start e-commerce ventures in order to increase their sales (Bianchi and Bivona, 2002). At the same time there is considerable effort expended, both in time and money, by governments to encourage small and medium sized enterprises to invest in the use of the Internet (Beckinsale and Levy, 2004). According to Levy and Powell (2002) most SMEs do not view the Internet as the key to their business strategy. Strategy is rarely raised as an enabler or as an inhibitor in the literature. The entrepreneur is critical in determining the Internet development. However, strategic commitment has been shown to be critical in SMEs. Research in several countries show that SMEs have been slower to adopt e-commerce than their larger counterparts, but the rate of the Internet usage in SMEs is growing quite rapidly. Internet has focused on large firms, new business models, the growth and development of dot-coms and the new economy. SMEs in traditional industries have been slower to adopt e-commerce than their larger competitors and research into the use of the Internet by such firms is more recent. (Drew, 2003) Furthermore, compared to the extensive literature on the importance and potential of the Internet as component of the business environment, research on organizational evolution and strategy for the Internet in businesses is limited and sketchy. The majority of publications, text books, press articles, and white papers on the Internet strategy deal with this issue on a somewhat tactical level: How to build up unique competitive position, attract customers, and increase sales. (Constantinides, 2004) In many ways the field of entrepreneurship and small medium sized firm research seems no closer to understanding the dynamics of small business growth after decades of empirical studies (Lowe and Henson, 2004). Whilst the issue of growth in small firms is topical and well researched, the literature on growth processes and transitions in high-growth small firms is sparse and underrepresented in the entrepreneurship and small business journals. A recent content review of abstracts obtained via a database search identified only two percent addressing issues of high growth, growth processes and transitions as being key elements of the published papers. Saulnier and Rosson (2004) further mention that expressions made about the importance of e-business have not been fully matched by actions taken, particularly in the areas of staff training, technology infrastructure, and applications to deal with growth. The use of ICT, technology upgrading, and continuous innovation are paramount to being competitive and run at optimum efficiency. However there is relatively little empirical data pertaining to SMEs in Mauritius and more particularly regarding the extent to which they have adopted ICTs in day to day running of their businesses. A survey by Matadeen (2004) showed that most of the Mauritian companies were managed by the owners themselves irrespective of the fact that they may have management skills or not. With this in mind, the strategy to develop for SMEs and e-business must take into account the local culture and customs in Mauritius. Possible Role of the Internet in Specific Growth Strategies Adopted by SMEs The Internet is usually presented as an opportunity for smaller firms because it helps reduce transaction costs and level the playing field. Often cited benefits include expanding the scope of marketing, wider and richer communication, reaching new markets, reducing the cost of operations and partnering with suppliers and other collaborators. (Drew, 2003) The Internet provides a unique opportunity to examine the evolution and growth of a business sector because it has taken place over a relatively short time period (Javalgi et al. 2004). The initial Internet environment might be described as a virgin environment, in which rapid growth could be expected. Among emerging technologies, the Internet is a new channel for commerce applicable in a wide variety of industries around the world. As a new strategic tool, it is transforming businesses and creating new opportunities as well as challenges for international marketers as many nations are fast connecting to the global marketplace. Information technology is continuing to be an integral part of the business plan. Electronic commerce is affecting the way business are planning growth strategies and is the leading driver of corporate growth. The key is for IT to be seen as the new engine for growth, and not as a frustrating cost center. This result in a new way of thinking: The focus should be not on how much new technology should cost, but on how much revenue it will bring in. (Fruhling and Digman, 2000) Many SMEs have made innovative uses of the Internet to invent new business models or to enhance existing practices (Drew, 2003). Firms with a history of innovation are embarking on a full- scale electronic commerce strategy. These firms are tying innovation with electronic commerce with the hopes to ensure company growth. Fruhling and Digman (2000) mention electronic commerce enables business to quickly and efficiently implement growth strategies. One of the main reasons this strategy is so attractive is the incredible growth rate of the Internet users. Key Drivers for adoption of the Internet in SME Growth Levy and Powell (2002) explored the adoption of the Internet among SMEs and formulated a model for the Internet adoption. This model identifies four roles for the Internet in SMEs brochure ware, support, opportunity, and network. These are driven by business growth planning and perceived the Internet value as shown in figure: Business Growth Levy and Powell (2002) advocate two key drivers in determining the use of internet by SMEs. The first driver is business growth. In some firms business growth is planned and investments are made ahead of need. In many other SMEs growth may occur but not as a result of planning. Attitude to business growth often determine whether SME owners consider resource investment in the business. IT investment is traditionally restricted in SMEs, with many investing at start-up, but no further investment is made until business outgrows existing system. It is reasonable that attitude to growth will impact SMEs decision to invest in the Internet. Business Value from Use of the Internet The second driver is business value from use of the Internet. Business value of the Internet is identified through response to the firms competitive positioning and their knowledge of respective industries. SMEs do consider the role of the Internet for their business generally with cautious approach. Most firms do not see the value of the Internet to their growth strategy. However, a number of visionary owners believe they can change their business through the use of the Internet. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Brochureware are those firms that do not plan business growth and see the value of the Internet as low. Owners generally think about the Internet but cannot see its relevance to their business. One of the reasons is nature of industry in which SME operates. Hence, there is a role for the Internet for these firms but it is restricted to the presentation of on-line firm information or brochures and for e-mails. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Business Opportunity is SMEs with recognition that the Internet has some value to them, in the future. However, it is limited to improving efficiency internally, customer communication, and research. The contrast between this category and Brochureware is that owners recognize the business value of the Internet and although not seeking growth, recognize that competitive pressure demand investment. These firms see a business opportunity from use of the Internet and related. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Firms using the Internet for Business Support are planning growth, but currently see little future for their businesses from the Internet. Most of time these SMEs are innovative firms seeking growth. They have a number of innovative products that are sold to large firms, so personal contact is regarded by customers as important and there is little indication that the Internet is of value. These SMEs seek to grow but do not believe that industry demands investment in the Internet to support that growth. These firms see the worth of the Internet as a medium for business support. (Levy and Powell, 2002) In Business Network opportunity from the Internet is seen as key to the development of SMEs. Firms see their future tied into using the Internet. Firms develop IT strategy alongside their business strategy most of the time. These are well positioned to take advantage of e-Business. These firms possesses effective internal network accessible by all employees as means to manage the business processes. (Levy and Powell, 2002) Advantages of the Internet for SME Growth According to Davis et al. (2000) a firm-specific advantage in penetrating international markets and facilitating organizational growth may stem from investments in technology or the use of specific technologies, such as the Internet. There is a long history of research linking technology and internationalization. Researchers advocate that to enter foreign markets, a firm must possess some clear advantage that will allow it to overcome native firms more thorough understanding of the local market. Traditionally, multinational corporations use economies of scale and other advantages of large size. However, many entrepreneurial firms can overcome the disadvantage of small size through their use of technology, such as the Internet, to reach consumers beyond their borders. Certain technologies can provide an advantage that widens market opportunities and serves as a platform for expansion. The Internet is widely considered to be one such technology rapid internationalization. (Davis et al. 2000) Authors argue that internationalization and growth of firms are positively affected by increased use of the Internet and increased investments in information technology. In addition, more attention is to be paid to the application of the Internet as well as to the pattern of investments in information technology to explain international expansion and growth among entrepreneur- led businesses. The continued globalization of the world economy makes the realization of role of technology in expanding overseas and maintaining healthy growth. Davis et al. (2000) mention that firms with more aggressive use of technology are likely to engage more in international activities. Their study of internationalization among new, high-tech firms reveals that firms with higher levels of technology usage incur costs associated with internationalizing to be significantly lower than firms with lower levels of technology usage. It appears that companies with a technological advantage have an incentive to expand overseas because they can use that advantage in overseas markets at little or no marginal cost over the cost of developing the advantage in the domestic market. Role of the Internet in Product-Market Development Strategy Market Development Online channels are used to sell into new markets, taking advantage of the low cost of advertising internationally without the necessity for a supporting sales infrastructure in the customers regions (Chaffey et al. 2003). This is a relatively conservative use of the Internet, but is great opportunity for SMEs to increase exports at low cost. A less evident benefit of the Internet is that as well as selling into new geographic markets, products can also be sold to new market segments or different types of customers. This may happen simply as a byproduct of having a web site. The Internet may offer further opportunities for selling to market sub-segments that have not been previously targeted. For example, a product sold to large businesses may also appeal to small firms. Product Development The Internet can be the basis for product development, information sharing, resource sharing, knowledge sharing and task assigning between different businesses. This can improve product quality and decrease development time and cost. (Yujun et al., 2006) Product development is innovative use of the Internet (Chaffey et al., 2003). Howe et al., (2000) report that the Internet provides global access to people, data, software, documents and multimedia have allowed organizations to shorten the development cycle of new products, to communicate with experts from around the world, to receive immediate customer feedback, and to access supercomputers for industrial research and development. According to Howe et al., (2000) the Internet and its related applications can be effectively implemented at various stages of product development. For example, online forums, newsgroups, and Web sites provide an external source for product ideas. Market research can be performed on the Internet as numerous Web sites provide demographic information useful for estimating market size and potential. Surveys can be conducted on the Internet during the business case preparation to determine consumers needs, wants and preferences. Web-based and intranet applications can play an important role in the development phase, particularly when projects involve numerous teams at various locations. Providing effective media for communicating and disseminating information, these technologies also facilitate concurrent engineering. The Internet can be used for beta testing of new products, allowing lead users and firms to collaboratively eliminate product defects prior to market introduction. The Internet and its related technologies can add significant value to new-product development projects. The main value lies in the acceleration of profitable ideas through the new product development process. At the same time, risks associated with this `rush to market are minimized as a formal system to weed out poor ideas quickly and to suggest modifications to product concepts. The use of the Internet and/or intranet at various stages not only minimizes time to launch but can also increase the integration of constituent viewpoints/recommendations, example consumers, engineers, marketing, etc., during development. This integration of the `voice of the customer and other functional members of the firm are critical in successful new product introductions. Need for speed is becoming more salient in todays competitive arena. The firm that is first to launch a new product/technology, i.e. the pioneer, can accrue several pioneering advantages. These advantages include, but are not limit ed to: establishing product standards, building brand equity (combination of awareness, perceived quality, brand loyalty, etc.), securing distribution channels, and setting initial customer expectation for all other products. (Howe et al., 2000) The Internet offers opportunities for firms in their new product development pursuits in terms of enhancing their abilities to collect, categorize and use information needed for product development; helping them understand their market better and thus target it more effectively; generating a wider range of new product ideas from a wider range of sources; making the concept screening process more comprehensive, flexible and objective; increasing the speed and the quality of business analyses; facilitating the collaboration of new product team members and enhancing operational performance; increasing the speed and the quality of testing and validation; improving the effectiveness and the efficiency of manufacturing development; enhancing the effectiveness and the efficiency of new product launch. (Howe et al., 2000) LEGAL ASPECTS Laws Covering Cross-Border Electronic Transactions between a Buyer and a Seller Business to Business (B2B) transactions differs from Business to Consumer (B2C) transactions on the way an agreement is entered. In the case of a B2C transaction, the parties involved have to abide by the public policy laws of the consumers country, which are meant to protect the consumer. On the other hand, parties have the freedom to choose which law will govern their contract. They have to state which law will govern their transaction(s). In case they have not specified, the jurisdiction responsible for the case will have to decide which law is applicable. In general, two solutions are most commonly applied: The applicable law will be the law of the country of the seller or The applicable law is that of the place of the signing of the contract. Point of Sale for Which the Buyer and the Seller Become Legally Bound

Impacts of Urban Tourism Essay -- Economics Society Tourism

During the past few decades, traveling has greatly increased. Purposes of travel vary, some travel for business, some for leisure, some for the experience of different cultures, some for specific interests, or just for the pursuit of entertainment. More than half of the globe's population now lives in urban areas, these places are now the world's stage for many civilizations. They are centers of arts, entertainment and food, gateways to traditional customs and modern society, focal points for commerce, industry and finance, culture and people, icons and architecture, uniqueness and unity, and of course they give tourists a chance to experience diversity and creativity. However, to know what the city's strategies to attract the attention of tourist, there are cretin elements of urban tourism need to identify that lead to attract visitors to a city. Tourism is often associated with traveling to places away from home. Tourism has a big impact on the economic growth of some countries, which define the shape of their cities by producing different sectors like historic districts, convention centers, museums, malls, hotels, restaurants, and the list can be endless. Furthermore, tourism elements have been developed by cities for a variety of reasons including: situating themselves in the world by drawing a positive image and attracting visitors and for their money. As a result, by defining the primary and secondary elements in the tourist bubble, it could determine what effect urban tourism has on cities. Therefore, primary elements include: cultural facilities (museums and art galleries, theaters, cinemas, concert halls and convention centers), sport facilities, amusement facilities (night clubs, casinos and festivals), p... ...Marketing cities for Tourism†, page 54 Houston, and Sydney opera house all these icons play a big role in marketing their cities to attract tourists to visit. Overall, travel can change the spiritual as well as the physical existence of both visitors and host, therefore urban tourism refers to the consumption of city spectacles and cultural amenities by visitors. Also, it is important to point out that the tourist elements developed by most cities are portraying a product â€Å"the city† to promote it for consumers â€Å"visitors† in order of stimulating the urban economy. Works Cited 1. Bosley , Holly Elizabeth, Ph.D. Spatial conceptualization of the urban tourist bubble 2. Dennis R. Judd â€Å"Constructing the Tourist Bubble†, The tourist city. 3. Holcomb, Briavel â€Å"Marketing cities for Tourism†, The tourist city. 4. http://www.scholars-on-bilbao.info/

Environmental Assessment of the Asopos River Basin

Presentation of Asopos River BasinEtymology – MythologyAsopos: ( Grecian: I ) from Asis, Greek: I†  ( = I ) , intending â€Å"marsh ( or Moor ) † and Opsis Greek: I , intending â€Å"appearance† . ASOPOS ( or Asopus ) was a River-God of Boiotia in cardinal Greece, and Sikyonia in the Peloponnesos, southern Greece. Naiades, Asopos’ 20 girls, were H2O nymphs who had names of Greek island towns.LocationIn a study of Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works ( MoEPPW ) in 2006, it is referred that a entire country of 12,341 kilometers2is occupied by Water District 07 of East Sterea Ellada. This country consists of the Prefecture of Evoia, major parts of the Prefectures of Fthiotida ( 83.1 % ) , Voiotia ( 98.5 % ) , Fokida ( 41.9 % ) and smaller parts of the Prefectures of Magnisia ( 14.9 % ) and Attica ( 7.2 % ) . River Basin of Voiotikos Kifissos River, River Basin of Sperchios River and River Basin of Asopos River are the chief River Basins of the Water District referred above. Other important H2O organic structures located in that country are lakes Iliki and Paralimni. In the Figure below is presented the Water District 07 of East Sterea Ellada. The entire surface country of Asopos River Basin – which is located in East Attica and Voiotia Districts ( Central Greece ) and flows from West to east – is 450 kilometer2and extends to Evoikos Gulf. The entire length of Asopos is 57 kilometer, holding its beginnings in Elikona mountain, and some watercourses from Parnitha and Dervenochoria Mountains. Its flow watercourse base on ballss through Asopia, Inofyta, Schimatari, enters the part of north-east Attica and eventually meets the sea near Oropos laguna, in north Evoikos Gulf, as shown in the Figure below. Vertical tectonic motions, of different grades of strength resulted in the creative activity of Asopos’ River Basin. That is the ground why the basin is non homogeneously developed and has differences in deposit in different places. The part studied – piece of the Sub-Pelagonian zone – has a particular geological formation. More specifically it is constituted by three chief units:the crystalline cellar stone ( schists, schists with psammitic stones, schists with marbles and sipoline embolisms )the alpine cellar stones ( limestones and dolomites of Triassic and Jurassic age )the post-alpine deposits ( Neogene lignite-bearing sedimentations, marly formations with lignite embolisms, pudding stones, marly limestones and travertines, and other coarse unconsolidated stuff ) .A hydrogeological analysis of Asopos’ River Basin, concluded that semi-pervious formations of Neogene-Quarternary, extremely pervious formations of calcite and other imperviable formations cover the 55 % , 41 % and 4 % of the River Basin severally. The unequal spring H2O flow every bit good as the extended being of formations made by karst convert precipitation to direct infiltration further restricting surface H2O flow. As a consequence, the bulk of the H2O flow derive from natural or semi-processed industrial or domestic wastewaters. In dry periods, the H2O flow eliminates highly and the sea H2O enters the estuary of the river for 100s of metres. In a research of the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration ( I.G.M.E. ) in 1996 the coefficients of the surface drainage and infiltration were estimated to 0.19 and 0.25 severally. In the same research the appraisal of the one-year discharge is 70.1 hectometer3.Surface and Groundwater{ The fact that the H2O of the downpours penetrates into the constructions of groundwater, due to the widespread parts of limestone made by karst, consequences in an disconnected interaction between the two sides of the channel. As a consequence the hydrographic web of Asopos is non peculiarly good developed. In the yesteryear, despite its big catchment country, Asopos itself held H2O merely for a really short period. The ground was the fast incursion of the H2O from the surface into the aquifer. Nowadays, there are sections of Asopos that have H2O event in the summer, as a consequence of smaller subdivisions that enter the river. The Asopos’ River Basin has merely specific countries with impenetrable formations ( clay sedimentations, schists ) . As a consequence the H2O flow of the watercourse is non uninterrupted, apart from little downpours that keep a H2O flow for a specific clip period ( i.e. the Lantikos and thes Gouras ) . Streams like the Liveas ( in the Northwest of Malakasa ) have seasonal H2O flow. Other streams – the longest 1s – are the Potisiona, the Sklirorrema and the Vathi ( drain in its north side ) . Streams that drain of the south side of the basin are the Lykorrema, the Xerias, the Bresiko etc. A study conducted by Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works ( MoEPPW ) in 2006, reports that there is an indicant of pollution caused by high organic tonss caused by industrial and urban wastes every bit good as agricultural tally offs in Asopos’ catchment country. The consequences – findings of that research were high concentrations of nitrates and P in Asopos River. Equally far as the groundwater quality is concerned, its features were classified into two separate classs: the ions and the hint elements. Some of the consequences of the survey of the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration ( I.G.M.E. ) ( Gianoulopoulos, 2008 ) are:the chief beginning of the nitrates are the N fertilisers, which are used in the agricultural sector. Additionally, the being of ammoniacal and nitrite ions is due to the urban and industrial pollution beginnings.There is increased concentration of Cl–and PO4ions, which are consequence of industrial pollution beginnings.The figure below shows the precipitation and the average temperature of the part of Asopos for the period October 1999 to September 2010. The informations are taken from the meteoric Stationss at Kallithea, Tanagra and Marathon. As we can easy detect the one-year mean precipitation degrees are 534.5 millimeters, 502.9 millimeter and 625 millimeter severally. Equally far as the mean one-year ai r temperature is 16.7OC and 17.5OC at the Tanagra and Marathon Stationss severally.Areas of Asopos categorized by usageThe country of Asopos has H2O demands for industry, agribusiness, abode and touristry. The survey about Asopos River Basin has to take into consideration that H2O demands and measure the distribution of that needs among the utilizations. There is a demand to specify the sectors that put more force per unit area in H2O usage. For the industrial sector, H2O usage takes topographic point for rinsing and colourising ( fabrics ) , steel production, cement production, oil processing, energy production etc. Sing the touristry sector of economic system and domestic sector ( families ) H2O usage concerns the H2O supply for place usage by the authorized provider. The prioritization of H2O usage in Asopos River Basin is as follows:Water supply of families, touristic units and vacation placeIrrigation of cultivated countries and farm animal unitsIndustrial H2O usageIn the figur e below the land usage of Asopos River Basin is presented. More specifically, the ecru colour represents the agricultural usage and the light purple the industrial usage.Demographic DataPermanent PopulationThe lasting population of Asopos River Basin as reported at 2001 Census is given in the tabular array below: For the Municipalities / Communes that do non fall entirely within Asopos River Basin, merely the lasting population of the subsequent Municipal Departments and urban vicinities that are included in Asopos River Basin was calculated.EmploymentTaking a expression at the Table below, which is harmonizing to informations from the Labor Force Survey of the National Statistical Service of Greece, we observe that the entire population of working age is divided into two big classs – the economically active population and the economically inactive population. The economically active population is divided into the employed and the unemployed. The employed are people with age greater than or equal to 10 old ages, who had worked even for merely an hr during the mention hebdomad ( for wage or net income or in household concern ) . Unemployed are people with age greater than or equal to 10 old ages, who did non hold work during the mention hebdomad, were presently available for work and we re either actively seeking work in the past four hebdomads or had already found a occupation to get down within the following three months. In economically inactive population belong those individuals who neither classified as employed nor as unemployed. Taking into consideration the information given by the Table above in combination with the definitions given, we can easy detect that the entire economically active population – in other words the work force – of Asopos River Basin in 2001 was 31,764 people. Out of these people 28,837 are employed – 90.8 % of the entire economically active population – and 2,927 are unemployed – 9.2 % of the entire economically active population. Equally far as the employing sectors is concerned, in the primary sector are employed about 19.8 % of the sum of employed people and about 9.8 % of the entire population ( economically active and economically inactive people ) . In the secondary sector are employed about 28 % of the sum of employed people and about 14 % of the entire population of Asopos River Basin. Finally, in the third sector are employed about 35.2 % of the sum of employed people, whereas about 17.4 % of the entire population of Asopos River Basin. As shown in the Table below people that work in the primary and secondary sector are about 24 % ( 9.8 % + 14 % ) of the resident population of Asopos River Basin over 15 old ages old, whereas in the third sector is occupied about the 18 % of the resident population of Asopos River Basin over 15 old ages old. On the other manus in Athens country occupants over 15 old ages old who are occupied in the primary and secondary sector are 11 % , whereas those who are occupied in the third sector are about the 32 % . Overall we can detect that the primary and secondary sector are more developed in Asopos River Basin than in Athens country, whereas the third sector is much more developed in Athens country.The ProblemDescriptionTaking into history the fact that Asopos part supports 1300 industries and related installations – nutrient and drink industries, agrochemical, metal processing etc. – it is considered as the largest industrial part of Greece. 1970 was the decate that indus trial activity started in the country of Asopos and more specifically in Schimatari and Inofita. To show some Numberss for the significance of the job of this country, we refer that 130 units of the bing 1s produce waste Waterss during their operational maps ( production ) . Equally far as the waste Waterss are concerned, the entire day-to-day produced measure is about 9,044 m3/day. 84 % of that measure is due to industrial waste Waterss. More specifically, this measure is split in 7,605 m3/day and 1,439 m3/day, the entire day-to-day measure of waste Waterss of the industrial units of the country and the entire day-to-day measure of waste Waterss of the employees of these units severally. Taking a glimpse at the Table below, which is a study from a study of M. Loizidou in 2009, we can easy detect that the chief sectors from which the bulk of waste Waterss come from are the sectors of â€Å"Textile and leather industries† , â€Å"Metallurgy related industries† and †Å"Industries of Foods and Drinks† at 25 % , 21 % and 30 % severally.Consequences – ImpactsThe estimated impacts of industrial sector on Asopos River Basin are fundamentally environmental and societal impacts. More specifically the environmental impacts of industrial pollution in Asopos catchment consist in catastrophe of biodiversity – fish and invertebrates, birds on estuary – and in the pollution and decrease of groundwater. On the other manus the societal impacts of industrial pollution in Asopos catchment are impacts on human wellness – from ingestion of contaminated agricultural merchandises and groundwater, impacts on local economic system, which is because of increased cost for imbibing H2O for families, increased cost for local agricultural manufacturers, increased cost for nutrient industries, and lessening of tourers for local tourer companies. Finally, other societal impacts of industrial pollution of Asopos River Basin are impacts on diversion of local occupants every bit good as visitants ( touristry ) .Choice Experiment Method on Asopos CaseUsing the Choice Experiment Method on the Asopos Case, the research workers targeted to measure a package of betterments, which could take topographic point in the Asopos River Basin. This package of betterments includes:Environmental conditions described in footings of ecological position in all H2O organic structures of the catchmentImpact on the local economic system in footings of tourism/recreation, demand for local production and cost of life for families andImpact on human wellness described as handiness of H2O with a quality and measure sufficient for fulfilling different local utilizations.The package of betterments is a mixture of usage and non-use values. As usage value is defined the values that people derive from the direct usage of a good. Examples of usage value are runing, fishing, or boosting. Use values may besides include indirect utilizations. For illustration, a particular part offers direct usage values to the people who visit the country. Others could hold fun watching about this part in a Television show. In that manner they would have indirect usage values. As non-use value is defined the value that people assign to economic goods ( including public goods ) even if they ne'er have and ne'er will utilize it. Non-use value as a class may include:â€Å" option value † – the value placed on single willingness to pay for keeping an plus or resource even if there is small or no likeliness of the person really of all time utilizing it, happening because of uncertainness about future supply ( the continued being of the plus ) and possible hereafter demand ( the possibility that it may someday be used ) .â€Å" bequest value † – values placed on single willingness to pay for keeping or continuing an plus or resource that has no usage now, so that it is available for future coevalss.â€Å" Existence value â€Å" – an unusual and slightly controversial category of economic value, reflecting the benefit people receive from cognizing that a peculiar environmental resource, such as Antarctica, the Grand Canyon, en dangered species, Sharri Dogs or any other being or thing exists.â€Å" selfless value † – the value placed on single willingness to pay for keeping an plus or resource that is non used by the person, so that others may do usage of it. Its value arises from others ‘ usage of the plus or resource.The method of Choice Experiments was chosen because since it is a conjectural survey-based method, it can quantify the public-service corporation every bit good as the Willingness To Pay ( WTP ) for different conjectural degrees of each property examined. In add-on, in Choice Experiments the respondent chooses between options, as packages of properties, doing picks ensuing to a lower danger for strategic prejudice – yeah stating, in the replies. Finally, it is one of the best ways to measure non-market resources, options and properties.Sampling – Survey MethodExcept for the necessitate of rating of the socio-economic and environmental effects related with th e debasement of the basin, the survey that took topographic point aimed to look into the manner the two different populations – that of the occupants of Asopos ( rural population ) and that of the occupants of Athens ( urban population ) – give value to the same package of proposed betterments. Apart from the socio-demographic composing that has motivated this sampling, another ground for that is the different manner those populations experience the debasement of the environment due to location and economic dependance on the country. One of the chief grounds why two different samples were chosen was that the purpose of the survey was to happen out usage and non-use values. As a consequence the mark population was the occupants of the Asopos River Basin, where the study took topographic point, because they would be straightforward affected by possible alterations in H2O direction. On the other manus occupants of Athinais were included in the study, because they were in close propinquity to Asopos River Basin. The study was conducted by door-to-door interviews. The interviews took topographic point in families and one grownup per house participated. Quota sampling was followed harmonizing to 2001 Census informations in order the samples to be every bit representative as possible. Finally, 25 % of the occupants were called. During the procedure of the interview were used suited showcards, which described the alternate scenario utilizing images. The census taker gave simple descriptions of the inquiries, read aloud. In that manner the census takers could break illustrate policy results to respondents in footings of properties and degrees.

Effective pain relief in postoperative patients Essay

Pain is physiological mechanism and a means of the body alert the person about either currently present or impending damage to it. It can be defined as the â€Å"unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential damage† (Gelinas, 2004). Consequently, the words discomfort has also been used interchangeably with pain in the past and can be defined as a â€Å"negative affective and/or physical state subject to variation in magnitude in response to internal or environmental conditions† (Gelinas, 2004). Pain is a very important component in care of the surgical patients, both preoperative and post operative. Surgery itself afflicts large amounts of trauma on the patient. The pain that the patient has to incur afterwards adds his anxiety levels and stresses the body. Lack of or inadequate amounts of pain management by the staff, impacts the patients healing process. Their mobility and in the long terms their duration of hospital stay is also affected. It is important that, for optimal patients health management and care, a means tool must be available to measure the patients pain assessment and relief requirement through pharmacological and non pharmacological means. Little research has been done to properly assess and document the prevalence of pain and its management protocols in post operative patients. The pain scoring systems are available to attempt to quantify pain and manage it accordingly. These subjective ones include the categorical rating scales (CRS) in which patient rates pain from â€Å"No† to mild moderate or severe. Another one is the â€Å"Visual Analog score (VAS) where the individual scores are placed on a 10-cm line where the left anchor point is labeled â€Å"no Pain† and the right anchor point is labeled â€Å"worst possible pain†. Since every patient has a varying threshold for pain, and requires varying levels of drugs, to over come the pain, it is better for there to be both a subjective indicator for pain as well as an objective one, that is to say, that the nurses an also assess how much pain the patient is in, by using a tool she is provided with. Cardiac surgery is a major thoracic surgery and patients post operatively require lot analgesics to manage pain so that their morbidities associated with pain (like pain in breathing, walking etc) can be eliminated. Usually morphine is used for the purpose of pain relief but there are indications that Fentanyl can perform a similar relief without much of the side effects associated. There needs to be some focus into this theory. This can be achieved by placing 2 similar populations of adult cardiac patients who have just undergone cardiothoracic surgery on morphine or Fentanyl. As is the standard procedure nowadays, quality indicators, both subjective and objective can be used. The VAS pain scoring card can be provided to the patients for them to record the different levels of pain that they feel. The nurses would be provided with indictors to record objective findings which can indicate pain. â€Å"These can be physiological and behavioral indicators. The physiological indicators can be clustered into cardiovascular, respiratory and cerebral responses† (Gelinas, 2004). Pain associated responses would include tachypnea in respiratory, tachycardia and increased blood pressure in cardiac and raised ICP in cerebral responses. After assessment of the pain levels with the quality indicators, the pain management drugs will be administered and later the subjective and objective pain assessment will be repeated to see which drugs effects were greater and lasted longer. A study conducted by Celine Gelinas on critically ill incubated patients, to find out what are the protocols and tools used to assess pain management are and if the patients were being given effective relief. He used subjective as well as objective tools. The results revealed that physicians placed no role in documenting pain in patients. Most of the reporting was done by nurses and the patients. It was also noticed that nurse’s assessment of pain was much less than that reported by the patients themselves. The research concluded that the documentation overall about the pain and its management was incomplete in general with little attention being given. The research also noted that even after being notified about the pain, its effective management only took place 60 percent of the time. (Gelinas, 2004). In and interventional study conducted by Francoise Bardiau in 2003, the quality indicators e. g. VAS were introduced in the surgical and anesthesia department. After a survey of assessment of knowledge of nurses, VAS to assess pain was the nurses worked to improve pain management. After further surveys, it was noted that initiation of programs to setting of quality indicators improves the overall pain management system. (Bardiau, F. , M, 2003) Idvall E tested a 5 point scale to measure the effects of quality indicator maintain pain relief measurements. â€Å"The results suggest initial support for the new instrument as a measure of strategic and clinical quality indicators in postoperative pain management, but it must be further refined, tested and evaluated†. Idvall E 2002) a multidisciplinary program development was introduced based on evidence based medicine to focus on construction of proper management protocols to implement clinician as well as patient based pain relief programs â€Å"The results suggest that addressing pain management through a variety of strategies targeted at the level of the institution, the clinician, and the patient may lead to desired changes in practice and better outcomes for patients. .† Bedard, D (2006). A survey conducted on post operative cardiac ICU patients, about their pain experiences revealed that despite the pain management regimes in place nowadays, the pain frequencies, and intensities were the same as they were more than a decade ago. Pain management is a vital component of patient care. Quality of pain management can only be assessed through proper indicators. These can be multimodal. The patient populations on which these indicators can be applied are preoperative and postoperative patients. Post operative cardiac patients under nursing care can benefit well from implementation of quality indicators such as VAS. In the nursing profession subjective scoring by the patients themselves enables the nurses to manage the pain properly. This will lead to quicker recovery by the patients and earlier discharge. In the long term this means leads financial implications on the patients due to reduced hospital stay. Also nursing work load gets reduced as the patient tern over is increased. The healthcare cost gets reduced. A Post operative pain management (POP) project was conducted in 2003. A nationwide survey was done to see the implementation of quality improvement projects in the field of pain management, it was noted that more than 70% of the hospitals were reportedly satisfied with the implementations and the outcomes of the quality improvement programs. Based on the analysis, it is noted that on the positive side, proper implementations of the quality indicators and improvement programs in the healthcare system and especially in the ICU and surgical wards, the patients stay can become quite comfortable. The stay can be reduced and the cost of healthcare to the system, the insurance companies, and the patient themselves can be reduced. In the other hand we can clearly see that by using the indicators we in effect are placing more workload on the nurses. If the subjective VAS and the objective physiological changes in the patient has to be monitored regularly just to assess the pain levels, a lot of quality time will be wasted. This time could have been used to tend to more critical patients. Now the question arises if it is worth the effect to implement the QI programs. The answer would lie in Force field analysis and the Lewin’s theory. If the benefits out way the set backs, we can implement the system. The idealistic thing would be that we assess the pain management needs of each department of the health care system and implement the QIs in the ones in which the implementation benefits out way the costs.